MAJOR RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD The following is a list of the world's major religions, culled from various sources. Although they are not religions, I have included Atheism and Agnosticism as counterparts to the formal religions listed here. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CHRISTIANITY The historic religion derived from the teaching and life of Jesus Christ (using the New Testament of the Bible as the guide). It was founded and grew up amid the vigorous currents and cross-currents of religious thought and practice in the Greco-Roman world of the 1st-century A.D. Arising as a sect within Judaism, it had behind it a long and complex religious development that culminated in the Hebrew prophetic movement and the deeply laid hope of the coming of the Messiah (the "annointed one"), who would establish the Kingdom of God on Earth. Christianity, in all its forms, is distinguised from other religions by the belief in the gospel of Christ. The major divisions of Christianity are as follows: Roman Catholicism The largest Christian church in the world (more than 900 million followers), it claims direct historical descent from the church founded by the apostle Peter. The Pope in Rome is the spiritual leader of all Roman Catholics. He administers Church affairs through bishops and priests. Members accept the gospel of Jesus Christ and the teachings of the Bible, as well as the Church's interpretations of these. God's grace is conveyed through sacraments, especially the Eucharist (or communion) that is celebrated at Mass, the regular service of worship. Redepmtion through Christ is professed as the sole method of salvation, which is necessary to ensure a place in Heaven after life on earth. Roman Catholics beleive in the Holy Trinity, holding that there is only one God in 3 persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, who are distinct from and equal to one another. Orthodox Eastern Church The second largest Christian community in the world (more than 150 million followers), it split from the Roman Catholic Church in 1054. The followers of the Orthodox church are in fact members of many different denominations, including the Church of Greece, the Church of Cyprus, and the Russian Orthodox Church. Orthodox religion holds biblical Scripture and tradition, guided by the Holy Spirit as expressed in the consciousness of the entire Orthodox community, to be the source of Christian truth. It rejects doctrine developed by the Western churches, such as the infallibility of the Pope and the Immaculate Conception. In contrast to Roman Catholics, who hold that the Holy Ghost proceeds from God and Christ, the Orthodox believe it proceeds from God alone. Other Orthodox doctrines not subscribed to by Catholics are that Christ is the sole head of the Church, and that its authority resides within its members, "the totality of the people of God"; salvation is possible only through the Church, good works, and belief in Christ; and that Heaven and Hell are considered real places. Coptic Church A theological controversy in the 5th century led to the creation of the Coptic Church, the native Christian church of Egypt. While the Catholic Church held that Christ had 2 natures (human and divine), the Copts maintained that Christ had only a single divine nature. Labelled as heretics by the Church of Rome, they went their own way. Protestantism While there are many different divisions of Protestant faith, they are bound by both a belief in the gospel of Christ and a renouncemnet of Catholicism and it's more traditional teachings, as well as rule by the Pope. It is a Western counterpart to the Eastern Orthodox religion, which also split from Catholicism. All Protestant chruches, as such, share certain historic tenets and attitudes: they regard the Bible as the word of God and the only source of revealed truth (as opposed to the Catholic reliance on tradition and the authority of the church); they hold to the principle of "private judgement" in the interpretation of the Scripture (as opposed to the Catholic dogma that only the church can interpret the Bible authoritatively); they subscribe to the principle involved in Luther's famous doctrine of "justification by faith" (as opposed to any reliance upon ceremonial observances as effective for salvation); and the church is simply the "fellowship of believers" or "the people of God" (as opposed to the idea of the church as an institution mediating salvation to its adherants through the recurring resentation of Christ's sacrifice). The various Protestant faiths are: Anglicanism A Protestant branch of Christianity with churches throughout the world that have the same form of worship as the Church of England (American adherants call their church the Episcopal Church). Anglicanism began in England after Henry VIII declared that the King, not the Pope, was the supreme head of the Church. The Archbishop of Canterbury was made the head of the Church of England, which prepared its own prayer books (the "Book of Common Prayer"), and statement of doctrine (the 39 Articles). Sometimes called the "bridge Church", Anglicanism agrees with Catholicism on most issues, but like other Protestant groups, Anglicans reject the authority of the Pope. They believe the Bible represents the final statement of life and religion, but it is not always to be interpreted literally. In general, Episcopalians do not believe in a physical heaven or hell, and hold that God, after the Last Judgement, will re-create man with a "spiritual body". Baptists The Baptists believe that only believers (and therefore not infants) may be baptized and that baptism must be administered through full immersion (rather than sprinkling). Baptists hold that the Bible is the supreme authority in every manner of faith, and seek to follow the New Testament as their only guide. Baptists also believe in a "gathered" church, where each church is organized congregationally - independant of all other Baptist churches. They affirm that Christ is the true head of each local church, which is therefore autonomous under him. They also put considerable emphasis on the Reformation doctrine of "the priesthood of all believers", giving prominent place to the laymen in the life of the church. They believe strongly in the separation of church and state, resisting any kind of government control of churches. Christadelphians Founded by John Thomas in the USA, it claims to have returned to the beliefs and practices of the original disciples. They accept the Bible as infallible, and are particularly interested in the fulfilment of prophecy. They reject the doctrines of the Trinity and Incarnation (the idea that God became man in Christ, thus having both human and divine natures) and have no ordained ministry. Christian Churches (Discpiles of Christ) Grew out of the work of Barton W. Stone - a revivalist who broke away from Presbyterianism in 1803 to form churches which claimed no other name than "Christian" - and Thomas Campbell, who departed from a very conservative Presbyterian body and organized his followers into the Christian Association of Washington in an attempt to restore the primitave apostolic pattern of faith. In 1832, these two factions merged to form the Christian Churches, or Disciples of Christ. Their attitude towards theology has been expressed historically in three familiar slogans: "Where the Scriptures speak, we speak; where the Scriptures are silent, we are silent." "In faith unity, in opinions liberty, in all things charity" "No creed but Christ, no book but the Bible, no law but love, no name but the divine." Christian Churches are missionary-minded and deeply interested in the ecumenical (the recovery of unity among churches) movement. Christian Science Christian Science is a system of spiritual healing and a religion based on the principles of Mary Baker Eddy (1821-1910), who, while suffering from an injury in 1866, experienced a remarkable recovery which she declared came about after reading how Jesus healed in the Gospel of St. Matthew. According to Eddy, belief in the truths of the Bible makes it possible to heal the sicknesses of the body. God is spirit, and humans created in his image are also spirit; matter does not exist, nor illness, except as an illusion; a person can overcome sickness if faith is strong enough. What others call "death", Christian Science refers to as "only an incident in the dream of mortality". Christian Science is a religion with no clergy -- services and church government are conducted by lay members. Churches of Christ A group of autonomous churches which have separated from the Christian Churches. Believing that the Christian Churches were moving away from a rigorous New Testament Christianity (through such things as the use of the organ in public worship and the utilization of Sunday schools and missionary societies), the Churches of Christ requested to be listed separately in the federal religious census of 1906. Churches of Christ regard Jesus Christ as the founder, head, and saviour of the church. They contend that the Word of God is the seed of the church and that, when the Word is preached without aany admixture of human opinions, it will produce Christians, or a church of Christ. These churches hold to a strict congregational independancy, and have no general organization. Jehovah's Witnesses The Witnesses believe that Christ became King of Heaven in 1914 and cast out Satan, thus beginning great troubles on Earth which will climax in the Battle of Armageddon and the destruction of Satan. They believe that exactly 144,000 people will go to heaven, but that the rest of humanity will live in a paradise on Earth. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that theirs is the only true faith and the only way to salvation. All members are ministers who prostelytize their faith with door-to-door missionary work; members refuse service in the armed forces, will not salute national flags, or participate in government, will not accept blood transfusions, and discourage smoking, drinking, card-playing and dancing. Lutheranism The largest branch of the Protestant Church, growing out of the teachings of Martin Luther. The basic Lutheran principle is "justification through faith" - that man's faith in God, rather than man's good works, will bring about his salvation. Lutherans regard the Bible as their sole guide -- although they employ ordained ministers, they believe that every person is a priest and can approach God directly. In connection with the emphasis upon the real presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper (in, with, and under the bread and wine) as it was implied in Luther's doctrine of the omnipresence of Christ, Lutheran theology has always been marked by a sense of the in-dwelling of God in all life and of the nearness of Christ, the incarnate God, to all men of faith. Thus Lutherans tend to identify religious faith with love and providence. Mennonites (Amish) Faithfully adhereing to the principles of their forefathers, the Mennonites practice adult baptism, observe a strict Biblicist piety, reject the oath and use of violence, and strongly advocate the separation of church and state. Mennonites shun wordly ways and modern innovation (education and technology). Methodism The name derives from the founders' desire to study religion "by rule and method" and follow the Bible interpreted by tradition and reason. Although Methodists accept the Trinity and practice baptism, they hold that individual love for God and individual religious experience mean more than formal doctrine. Salvation is achieved by a life of holiness, repentence, and faith, and is available to everyone. Most believe in judgement after death, in which the morally good are rewarded and the wicked punished. Mormons (Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints) Founded by Joseph Smith when he declared, in 1827, that a vision led him to dig up golden plates covered with sacred writings. Translated by him, they were published as "The Book of Mormon". Mormons believe in a purposeful universe in which humans have been placed to make themselves more like God by faith and works. They hold that God was once a man, and that humans, too, may one day become gods. They believe in the Trinity as three distinct personages, and they practice baptism. Missionary work is important (all male Mormons have to spend two years between the ages of 18 an 25 in spreading the faith), and abstinence from tea, coffee, and alcohol is considered important. Pentecostal A group of independant religious bodies originating in the United States, the name derives from the doctrine that all Christians are to reproduce the experience of the original disciples on the first day of Pentecost following Christ's ascension. This involves being baptized in the Holy Ghost, speaking in tongues, and faith healing. Services feature enthusiastic sermons and hymns. Presbyterianism The basis of the Presbyterian creed is the Westminster Confession (1644-1647), the most famous statement of English Calvanism. They believe that the Scriptures are "the only infallible rule of faith and practice". Its main features are the right of every member to share in the government of the local church (which is exercised through elected or approved elders); a single order in the Christian ministry, in which all ministers are of equal status; and the governing of the national church through a graded arrangement of ecclesiastical courts compsed of equal numbers of ministers and laymen. Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) Reliance is on the Inner Light (the voice of God's Holy Spirit experienced within each person) which, if followed, can lead to spiritual truth. The Quakers believed that the Scriptures were a true Word of God, but that revelation was not confined to them. They rejected the Calvanistic concept of man's total depravity, insisting that there is a seed of God in every soul. Emphasizing the inward nature of religion, the Quakers reacted against outward ceremonies. As such, meetings are characterized by quiet meditation without ritual or sermon. Quakers are active in peace, education, and social welfare movements; they refuse to bear arms or take oaths. Seventh-Day Adventists Its distinguishing feature is the observance of Saturday, rather than Sunday, as the Sabbath. Otherwise, it is orthodox Protestant and evangelical, baptizes by immersion, and operated on a modified congregational basis. They require a lifestyle of strict temperance. Unitarian Universalist Association Members profess no creed; strong social, ethical and humanitarian concerns are manifest in the search for religious truth through freedom of belief; theists, humanists and agnostics are accepted in religious fellowship; efforts are aimed at the creation of a worldwide interfaith religious community. United Church of Christ One of America's newer Prostestant churches, formed the union of the Congregational Christian Churches (rooted in congregationalism, they believed that the true visible church is manifest in a local congregation rather than in lager units) and the Evangelical and Reformed Church (composed primarily of a previous union of German Lutherans and Calvanists). Their belief in the Bible is guided by the "Statement of Faith" (written in 1959). The church is organized by congregations, which are represented at a general synod that sets policy; infant baptism and communion are practiced. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- JUDAISM Stemming from the descendants of Judah in Judea, Judaism was founded by Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. It is one of the oldest of the monotheistic (one God) religions, and both Christianity and Islam are based upon its principal beleifs. Judaism believes in a God, who is the creator of the universe and who leads His people, the Jews, by speaking through prophets. His word is revealed in the Hebrew Bible (the Old Testament), especially in that part known as the Torah (the first five books of the Bible, also known as the Pentateuch). Jews beleive that the human condition can be improved, that the letter and the spirit of the Torah must be followed, and that a Messiah will eventually bring the world to a state of paradise. The basic beliefs of Judaism are a love of learning; the worship of God out of love, not fear; and the performing of heartfelt good deeds without concern about rewards. Pork and shellfish are prohibited. The main denominations of Judaism are: Reform Judaism Arose in the 19th century in response to the changing conditions of emancipated Jews in Germany. A doctrine of "progressive revelation" was adopted, maintaining only such traditional ceremonies as were meaningful to the modern Jew. The outward forms of religion are always changing, and the "spirit of the times" is also God's revelation. Orthodox Judaism In opposition to the newly-formed Reform Judaism, the Orthodox Judaic movement also was formed in the early 19th century. It views the Torah as derived from God, and therefore absolutely binding. It rejects the findings of higher criticism of the Bible, and upholds (as against the Reform Judaic rejection of these beliefs) the doctrines of the personal Messiah, the resurrection of the dead, and the ultimate restoration of the sacrificial service in the Jerusalem Temple. The worship service is conducted entirely in Hebrew, men and women sit in separate parts of the building, there is no instrumental music, head coverings and prayer shawls are worn by the men, and the service is usually of considerable length, since respect for the entirety of the accumulated tradition precludes any conscious process of selection. Conservative Judaism A modern interpretation of Judaism which tries to combine adherance to the traditional forms of the faith with concessions to modern conditions of life. It stands midway between Reform and Orthodox Judaism. Hasidism Religious movement in Judaism founded in Eastern Europe in the 18th century, Hasidism stresses joy in the worship of God and the mystical idea that the world of the senses is a veil concealing the essence of reality, which is the divine spark of holiniess in everything. It thus exalts religious melody and dance. They are an ultra-orthodox form of Judaism that lives in isolation from the Gentile world, and maintains a strict commitment to the Law in every phase of life. Reconstructionism Founded by Mordecai Kaplan who stressed Judaism as an evolving religious civilization. It gives equal importance to religion, ethics, and culture. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- HINDUISM Hinduism is a term used to broadly describe a vast array of sects to which most Indians belong. It has no particular ecclesiastical structure, nor set creed -- the emphasis is on the way of living, rather than on a way of thought. Hindu beliefs include the acceptance of the caste system, which ranks people from birth based on religious practice, employment, locale and tribal affiliation, among other categories. Society at large is classified into four groups (or castes), each created from a different part of Brahma, who pervades all reality: the Brahmans (priests and intellectuals), Kshatriyas (rulers and warriors), Vaisyas (farmers, artisans and merchants), and Sundras (peasants and labourers). Far beneath the four castes are the pariahs, or "untouchables". The goals of Hinduism are release from repeated reincarnation through the practice of yoga, adherance to Vedic scriptures, and devotion to a personal guru. Like the Buddhists, Hindus also believe in reincarnation -- that the soul takes up a new life when the individual dies. Whether it will be worse or better than the previous one depends upon "karma" (one's actions). Hindu hope is for release ("moksha") from this cycle. Various dieties are worshiped at shrines; the divine trinity, representing the cyclical nature of the universe, are Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Shiva the destroyer. The main denominations of Hinduism are: Vaishnavas Followers of the Hindu god Vishnu, forming one of the main branches of Hinduism. Most Vaishnavas are especially devoted to one of the 10 incarnations of Vishnu, now usually to Rama or Krishna. Shaivas Members of that branch of Hinduism which looks on the god Shiva as ultimate and accepts him as the chief object of worship. They demand blood sacrifices and a religious attitude of childlike surrender, as opposed to an attitude of love and offerings of devotion given to the incarnations of Vishnu by his followers (Vaishnavas). Shakti (or Sakti) Shakti is the mother goddess and manifests herself in many different forms. Theologically, Shakti is conceived as the active, powerful component of the universe, while her husband Shiva (who holds the power of destruction) rests in deep contemplation. Thus, the cults of Shaivas and Shakti are closely related, and the demands (sacrifices, and religious attitude) are similar. Arya Samaj Hindu reform organization formed in 1875, it sought to revive Vedism (the ancient sacred language of the Hindus) and advocated the abolition of the caste system, since it maintained that the Vedas, which it held to be infallible, did not recognize caste. The society favoured mass education, the emancipation of women, and the remarriage of widows. It opposed child marriage and image-worship. Righteousness and service to humanity were recommended as guides to proper conduct. Brahma Samaj Dedicated to nonsectarian worship of the Eternal, the sect promulgated a reformed theistic Hinduism. Influenced by Christianity and Western ideas, the movement advocated abolition of the caste system and child marriage and favoured emancipation of women and remarriage of widows. International Society for Krishna Consciousness Modern Hindu "Bhakti" (love of, or devotion to God) cult which has been successful in Europe and America. Shaven, yellow-robed devotees chant the mantra "Hare Krishna" as a way of reaching ecstatic union with God. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- BUDDHISM Grew out of the basic beliefs of Hinduism, but strongly rejected the Hindu caste system. Teaches that meditation and the practice of good religious and moral behaviour can lead to Nirvana, the state of enlightenment, although before achieving Nirvana one is subject to repeated lifetimes that are good or bad depending upon one's actions (karma). The doctrines of the Buddha describe temporal life as featuring "four noble truths": existence is a realm of suffering; desire, along with the belief in the importance of one's self, causes suffering; achievment of Nirvana ends suffering; and Nirvana is attained only by meditation and by following the path of righteousness in action, thought and attitude. The two schools of Buddhism are: Hinanyana ("the lesser vehicle") Emphasizes salvation by objective attainment. It teaches that each individual is responsible for his or her own salvation. It's only surviving sect is Theravada ("Way of the Elders"). Mahayana ("the greater vehicle") Lays stress on universal salvation, saying that all beings are tied together. It has produced a diversity of sects, including: Jodo Shin Sho Japanese sect founded in 1224 by Shinran Shonin. Shinran taught that salvation is attained by mere repetition of the name "Amida", the Infinite (Buddha). In effect, death and Nirvana then become synonymous, resulting unconditionally from the grace of Bodhisattva (an Indian diety) who, out of compassion for the welfare of humanity, renounced supreme enlightenment. Kegon Shu Founded in China and based on the Yogacara school of Indian Buddhist idealism that taught that the enitre objective world, composed of Buddha-essence, is a manifestation of the Buddha-mind. Lamaism The religion of Tibet and neighbouring regions blends Mahayanist teachings with native demon worship and the erotic practices of tantrism. Nichiren A native Japanese phenomenon, it was founded in an age when Japan was ruled by feudal lords and adopted Buddhism to the Bushido warrior cult by teaching that a state and religion should be a unity. Shingon Japanese sect, whose doctrines include: the Ten Stages, from beastly man to the Great Illuminator, a belief in the Buddha-nature of Supreme Reality, of which the historical Guatama Buddha was a manifestation; the Two Elements, the passive (or mental) and the active (or material), reflecting Wisdom and Compassion; the Three Secrets - that everything possesses body, thought and speech. Meditation is stressed. Soka Gakkai A "value-creating society" which is a lay movement that emerged at the turn of thecentury when religious freedom was introuced in Japan. Like Nichiren, from which it derives, it is intolerant of other movements and lays great stress on duty and morality. A special emphasis is placed on the creation of a "contented society". Tendai Founded by Chih-i in China and based on doctrines brought from India about 400 A.D. Tendai advocates extreme tolerance of "The Middle Way", recognizes all Buddhist sects, and is itself a miniature Buddhism. Very popular in Japan is its fundamental teaching that not only everyone, but also everything, attains Buddhahood, and that Buddha is Supreme Reality, manifested as the historical Guatama Buddha. The Tendai ideal is to live in harmony with Reality by vowing (to ones' self) imitation of Buddha. Vajrayana A version of Mahayana Buddhism, originating in India, that has become overlaid with occult, magical, and mystical elements. Vajrayana ("the diamond vehicle") seeks to pass beyond the appearances of things into an emptiness of through which the individual is identified with the absolute. To achieve this, specific techniques are used: the "mantra" (a magic saying, which is repeated over and over again); the "mudra" (special physical gestures); and the "mandala" (a `meditation circle' which is contemplated to achieve an experience of the divine). Zen (Ch'an) Bought to China from India in the 6th century by the philosopher Bodhidharma. Stressing self-reliance and meditation, Zen seeks to substitute intuitive awareness for intellect and logic. It is intended to train the mind to jump beyond the limits of thought -- to leap from "thinking" to "knowing". In order to attain enlightenment, or Buddhahood, according to Zen, a person must plumb the depths of his own "self". When he comes to know his own consciousness fully, he will find it identical with the spiritual reality which is conterminous (having the same boundary) with all that is. If a persoon cannot perceive reality in the most commonplace objects and activities, he will not find it anywhere. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ISLAM Founded by the prophet Muhammed, who received the holy scriptures of Islam (the Koran) from Allah (God), Islam maintains that Muhammed is the last in a long line of holy prophets, preceded by Adam, Abraham, Moses and Jesus. In addition to being devoted to the Koran, followers of Islam (Muslims) are devoted to the worship of Allah through the "Five Pillars": the statement "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammed is his prophet"; prayer, conducted five times a day while facing Mecca; the giving of alms; the keeping of the fast of Ramadan during the ninth month of the Muslim year; and the making of a pilgrimage at least once to Mecca, if possible. Consumption of pork and alcohol, as well as usury, slander, and fraud are prohibited. In the end, the sinless go to Paradise, a place of physical and spiritual pleasure, and the wicked burn in Hell. The holy book is called the Qur'an (Koran). The three devisions of Islam are: Sunni (Orthodox) Practice is staid and simple. A deterministic (no free will) viewpoint is held. The Wahhabis are the most important Sunni sect. 90% of Muslims belong to this belief. Shi'ah (Shiite) The Shi'ah believe in the 12 "imams" (perfect teachers) who still guide the faithful from Paradise. Practice tends towards the ecstatic. Man's free will is affirmed. For Shiites, pilgrimage to the cities sanctified by members of Mohammed's family is almost as important as the pilgrimage to Mecca. The sects of Shi'ah Islam include: Druses (Druzes) Developed in the 11th century from the Ismalii branch of Islam and based on the adoration of the Egyptian Caliph al-Hakim (who is regarded as the manifestation of God). They expect al-Hakim to return a conqueror and fill the earth with righteousness. Meanwhile, the more pious of the Druses try to purify their souls (which are held to be reincarnated generation after generation) so as to be worthy of him. Imamis The largest sect of Shiite Islam. They have accepted the Jaafari (named after the sixth "imam") form of Muslim law, and are led by independant religious authorities (mujtahids) recognized as learned and pious representatives of the hidden imam. Zaydis (Zaidis) The Zaydis hold that any descendant of Ali and Mohammed's daughter (Fatima) may be a legitimate imam (ruler of the Muslims) provided he is both expert in the law and effective in claiming his rights by the sword. Kharijites Adherants of several Muslim sects who insisted that the ruler of Islam must be of pure character and elected by the faithful. The Kharijites declared all other Muslims renegade for accepting sinful rulers. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- OTHER RELIGIONS/BELIEFS Agnosticism Beleif that it is impossible to know whether God exists, or to have any other theological knowledge. Animism Derived from the Latin word "animus", meaning "spirit", Animism is the belief that all beings, objects and natural phenomenon have souls. Animism is considered by many to be the original religion and is still widespread today, particularly in Africa, South America and parts of Asia. Atheism The rejection of beleif in God. Some atheists have held that there is nothing in the world that requires a God in order to be explained. Baha'i (Babi) Though the original intent of the movement was to purify the branch of Islam called Shiite Islam, it soon developed into an independant faith, the followers of which called for social reforms. The faith emphasizes the unity of all religious teachings that share the same spiritual truths and promotes universal education, equality between the sexes, world peace, and world government. The teaching of Baha'is especially concerned with the problems of the individual in the community, and Baha'is seek to work hand in hand with science. Man is required to adopt a new attitude to his role as a partner in the family and the whole social structure. Cao Dai Religious and political movement which started in southern Vietnam around 1920. It is sometimes called the "Third Amnesty". Firmly nationalistic, its teachings are a mixture of Buddhism and Taoism. Confucianism Confucianism, which grew out of a strife-ridden time in Chinese history, stresses the relationship between individuals, their families, and society, based on "li" (proper behaviour) and "jen" (sympathetic attitude -- the ultimate goal of conduct). Confucianism gives primary emphasis to the ethical meaning of human relationships, finding and grounding the moral in divine transcendence. The goal of the Confucian is to become a sage; a servant of society. Freemasonry Originally a religious brotherhood of English masons founded in the twelfth century, today it is a semi-secret society which retains certain mystical symbols and ceremonies. Members are committed to a belief that God as "the great architect of the universe", symbolized by an eye. Jainism An athiestic religion (which teaches that the universe goes through a process of advance and decline according to natural law) founded by Mahavira (the Great Hero), the faith accepts karma and reincarnation and, like Buddhism, rejects the Hindu caste system. However, unlike Buddhism, followers are urged to take the extreme path of asceticism, or self-denial. All Jains are vegetarians. They cannot take part in war. They cannot be butchers, or engage in any professions where they must kill or injure any living thing. They cannot even be farmers, for in tilling the soil they might kill worms. Hence, most Jains have become merchants and bankers. Jainism had some influence on Mahatma Ghandi, especially im respect of his insistence on complete nonviolence. Maoism An outgrowth of Marxist-Leninism, which was brought to China from the Soviet Union in the 1920's, it was founded by Mao Tse-tung, who aligned himself with the poor peasants of China and gained control of the Chinese Communist party in 1935. The main tenets of Maoism are faith in the Communist party, faith in the masses, and transcendence of personal desires in order to serve the people as a whole. Rastafanarianism Religious and political movement centered in the Caribbean. Rastafarians believe that all West Indians came from Ethiopia and will return there to liberation. They are distinguished by keeping their hair in "dreadlocks" and by their use of cannabis in worship. They helped develop the reggae style of music, which they use to express their political and religious aspirations. Rosicrucianism A modern movement, begun in 1868 that claims ties to an older Society of the Rose and Cross that was founded in Germany in 1413 by Christian Rozencreuz. Claims to empower members with cosmic forces by unveiling secret wisdom regarding the laws of nature. Scientism Scientists believe that the order of the universe can be determined by systematic study and analysis. They believe that theirs is the only true path and that other paths are "mere superstitions". Scientology Religious philosophy based on the teachings of L. Ron Hubbard. It teaches development through personality counselling and mind-training, the aim of which is the "clearing" of the individual and the recognition of his immortal nature. Shintoism The ancient native religion of Japan developed out of primitive worship of ancestors and natural forces, but has been influenced by Confucianism and Buddhism. The word "Shinto" means "way of the gods". Shinto stresses belief in a great many spiritual beings and gods, known as "kami" (who are paid tribute at shrines and honoured at festivals), and reverence for ancestors. While there is no overall dogma, adherants of Shinto are expected to remember and celebrate the kami, support the societies of which the kami are patrons, remain pure and sincere, and enjoy life. Shintoism places great emphasis on physical and mental purity. Sikhism The Sikhs religion developed out of Hinduism under the influence of Islam, and it also contains features perhaps showing Christian influence. Sikhs are more strictly monotheistic (one God) than Hindus, referring to God as Ram, Akal ("the Timeless"), and as Wahguru ("the Great Master"). Like Hindus, they believe in the transmigration of souls (reincarnation), but like the Muslims, they object to the worship of images. In their gurdwaras (temples), the sacred image is replaced by a large copy of the Sikh scriptures, referred to as Granth Sahib ("Lord Book"). This is a lengthy collection of hymns in Punjabi and Hindu, composed by the Sikh gurus and various Hindu hymnodists. Certain regulations of Govind Singh have given the Sikhs their distinctive appearance. The orthodox male Sikh must always wear certain articles, known as the "five k's" (because in Punjabi, their names begin with that letter). These are long hair (kesh), which, including the beard, must never be cut; a pair of sewn knee-length underpants (kachh), replacing the Hindu dhoti; an iron bangle (kara); a comb (kangha) to keep the hair in place; and a short sword or dagger (kirpan). The hair is always worn under a turban in public. Orthodox Sikhs rigidly avoid alcohol and tobacco, but they are permitted to hunt and eat meat. Society of Ethical Culture A humanist movement, stressing the importance of ethics and morality in human interaction, although it offers no system of ethics or other religious beliefs of its own. Taoism Both a philosophy and a religion, Taoism was founded in China and can best be described as a philosophy of "live and let live". It derives primarily from the "Tao-te-ching", which claims that an ever-changing universe follows the Tao, or path. The Tao can be known only by emulating its quietude and effortless simplicity; Taoism prescribes that people live simply, spontaneously, and in close touch with nature, and that they meditate to achieve contact with the Tao. Harmony is thus achieved by persuing inaction and effortlessness. Voodoo The religion of 90% of the people in Haiti (in spite of the official domination of the Roman Catholicism) as well as others in the West Indies and parts of South America. The name derives from a West African word for God, and the faith is a mixture of Christianity and native African religion. The Voodooists believe that life came from the mud and that from it they derive strength. Zoroastrianism (Parsi) A religion of ancient Persia, Zoroastrianism still exists on a limited scale in India and Iran. Founded by Zoroaster (Zarathustra in Persian), who had a series of revelations, inspiring him to preach the new faith. Eventually, it was eclipsed by Islam. Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic faith with a strong ethical emphasis centering about the dualistic concept of the conflict between Good and Evil. Good was manifest in the creator-god of light and truth, Ahura Mazda, the great, benificent Wise Lord. His evil opponent was Angra, Mainyu, or Ahriman, the spirit of darkness. The ultimate triumph of Ahuru Mazda was assured, but during the struggle, men could aid the cause of Ahuru Mazda by making free ethical choices and judgements in their daily lives.