EUROPEAN AND ASIAN INFLUENCES UPON PREHISTORIC MESOAMERICAN SHAMANIC RELIGIOUS BELIEFS By Maiya Rael, December 18, 1981 Course: Precolumbian Mesoamerican History in Art, HA 375 Professor : Dr. C. Wicke University of Victoria                CONTENTS  Belief in God Belief in the Soul and an Afterlife Archaeological Interpretations Neanderthal Burials Cro-Magnon Upper Pleistocene (Cro-Magnon) Art Early Man in the Americas Ritualistic Cannibalism Early Agricultural Societies Figurines Tatooing or Body Painting Multiplicity of Souls Figurines as Substitution Pieces for Human Sacrifices? Shamanic Figurines Definition of a Shaman Illness and Soul Loss Shamanic Universe Shaman as a Psychopomp World Tree Selection of Shamans Shamanic Training X-Ray Art and Dualities Skeletons in Art Temple Structures Early Deities Ritualistic Human Sacrifices Ideal Ways of Death Reasons for Sacrifices Origins of Shamanic Beliefs Survival of Shamanic Beliefs in Modern Society Bibliography               EUROPEAN AND ASIAN INFLUENCES UPON PREHISTORIC MESOAMERICAN SHAMANIC RELIGIOUS BELIEFS  Belief in a God  There are many different religious beliefs in Earth today, and apparently there have been many others in the past that have either been replaced by or incorporated into modern-day beliefs. One basic concept, however, common to most religions is the belief in some sort of Supreme Force of Being. When or where mankind first became aware of such a Force cannot be determined because scientific knowledge of prehistoric man can only be based upon the physical traces left behind. Thus, if early man did not build temples (and some religions still do not today) or make sacrifices to his God, nothing tangible would have remained for later ages to piece together.  Belief in the Soul and an Afterlife  Two other concepts common to most religions are the belief in the "soul" and of a continuing life for this soul after death. It is also not known when or where mankind first developed these ideas, but indications are that it was very early in human history. Clearly, there was a change, whereby something was missing, for all movement and consciousness ceased. This now inanimate being could be observed rotting away until there was nothing left but the bones; however, in sleep, the deceased would sometimes appear to those who had known him as if he were still alive. Thus, the conclusion that he must still exist somewhere. Although highly simplified, the above theory does give an indication as to how this awareness of the the mysterious force that gives life, consciousness and individual personality to humans and animals, and the belief of a life after death might have developed. As a result, the earliest traces of the religious beliefs of mankind are those clustering around the treatment of the deceased.  Archaeological Interpretations  The degree to which the life styles, customs, behavior and beliefs of early humanity can be reconstructed depends upon three things: the discovery of the burials; the care with which the deceased (and perhaps accompanying grave goods) were interred; and the care with which these human remains and associated objects are excavated. Even then, the interpretation placed upon these archaeological findings are bound to be somewhat conjectural, because we must use present-day peoples living under somewhat the same conditions as models upon which to base the beliefs of the prehistoric people, thereby presuming that these models and early man thought the same because they lived in a similar manner.  Neanderthal Burials  The first archaeological evidence of formal burials are those of Neanderthal man, who populated parts of Europe, the Near East and Asia during the last glaciation, approximately 80,000 to 40,000 years ago. Curtis (p.951) notes: Because burials often took place in the inhabited caves, a number of Neanderthal graves have been found. Often the bodies are gently flexed, as in natural sleep, but in some of them the limbs are pulled tightly to the body, suggesting that they may have been bound before burial. Such binding, when practiced by primitive tribes today, is done to keep the dead from rising to disturb the living. Some Neanderthal bodies were daubed with red ocher before burial, a custom also found among other primitive peoples. Many examples of burials with food and weapons - and one with Spring flowers - have been uncovered. Clearly, then, even before the emergence of modern man (Homo sapiens sapiens), also referred to as the Cro-Magnon type or Upper Pleistocene man, abut 40,000 to 30,000 years ago, there was the belief not only in an afterlife for the soul, but also the rear that this surviving soul could, in some way, pose a threat to living man.  Cro-Magnon  It is not known where modern man originated, for his appearance in the Mediterranean area is very sudden. Curtis (p.939) states that because of the differences in the skulls, be "...clearly did not arise from the extreme Neanderthal variety...previously present in Europe." Shortly after modern man's appearance, Neanderthal man became extinct. Curtis does not believe that this was due to intermarriage or warfare because of lack of evidence to support these theories. Instead, she believes Cro-Magnon introduced some type of disease to which Neanderthal had no resistance (just as the white man's diseases almost wiped out the North American Indians in historic times). Cro-Magnon burials, while similar to that of the Neanderthal, were fare more elaborate; some of the skeletons had worn necklaces and headdresses and "...some are overlaid with shells, which appear to have been attached to garments" (ibid., pl951). A skeleton of a woman about forty years old (which would be considered old for that time) and dating to abut 20,000 years ago was found buried in Czechoslovakia with the tail and paws of an arctic fox in one hand, its teeth in the other. Because the arctic fox is considered one of the swiftest and wiliest of animals, Curtis believes that this woman "...clearly had been an important personage, the possessor of some special skill or wisdom or, most likely, of magical powers." (ibid.)  Upper Pleistocene (Cro-Magnon) Art  The earliest recognizable art forms date from this Upper Pleistocene period. Curtis, on page 952, remarks that at this time "...art suddenly began to appear everywhere and in all its forms - sculpture, modeling, relief, engravings, drawings and paintings." Many of the stone and clay figurines are definitely female and some appear to be pregnant. Although most abundant in Europe, they have been found as far away as Siberia. Their function is not known; they could have been related to childbirth, or fertility, maybe guardians of the hearth (many have been found in context with living areas) or perhaps goddesses. Cave paintings and drawings, mostly of animals (many of which are now extinct), also date from this early period. One, from Les Trois FrŠres in France, shows what appears to be a man dressed in an animal skin and holding a bow which, in this case, seems to be used as a musical instrument. Apparently the bow is still used by certain people in South America, Asia and Africa as a musical instrument to charm animals. Brodzky et al (p.11) says this is done by "...holding one end to the lips and beating the taut string rhythmically ... the mouth here functions as a sound chamber."  Early Man in the Americas  The earliest archaeological evidence of humans in the Americas is that of modern man, and he was present in this "New World" before the extinction of the mammoths at the end of the last Ice Age, about 10,000 years ago. It is believed that these early people came to the Americas across a 1,000 mile-wide land bridge, Beringia, between Siberia and Alaska in their normal pursuit of big game as early as 40,000 but no later than 12,000 years ago. The most favorable conditions fur such migrations would have been about 25,000 to 20,000 years ago, before the most recent advance of the last Ice Age, when there was plenty of tundra vegetation to support the mammoths. According to Weaver, p.17, Archaeological...evidence is accumulating to show that migrations passed into North America and fanned out in the south, the most traversed route being an ice-free corridor east of the Rocky Mountains... and recent excavations at Tlapacoya in the basin of Mexico suggest that man may have lived in that region 22,000-20,000 years ago. These earliest inhabitants of the Americas were hunters and gatherers, but huge shell middens on the coastal areas as far south as the Strait of Magellan attest to an early fishing and sea-mollusk gathering culture as well (dating to about 9000 B.P.). The earliest evidence of agriculture in Mesoamerica comes from the Tehuacc n Valley in southeastern Puebla and dates from the El Riego Phase, 6500-4800 B.C. Chili peppers and avocados were cultivated and wild corn collected. The first evidence of woodworking and weaving date from this period and, according to Weaver (p.29) so does the first "...evidence of ritual burials, offerings, and cremation or human sacrifice".  Ritualistic Cannibalism  One skull from this El Riego Phase shows evidence of what might have been ritualistic cannibalism: it "...had been roasted, the occiput smashed, and the surface scraped clean" (ibid.). Curtis remarks on page 952 that the earliest evidence of cannibalism dates from the time of Homo erectus (before Neanderthal), 350,000 years ago and comes from the Choukoutien caves in China. The skull of a Neanderthal man from a cave in Italy at Mount Circeo, dating from about 60,000 years ago, also shows evidence of cannibalism. She explains that most animals do not eat their own species and "...cannibalism among primitive peoples is almost always a ritual ceremony whose purpose is to acquire some of the powers or capacities of the dead person". We thus appear to have a ritual here that might have been brought to the Americas with the first "immigrants" across the above-mentioned land bridge, a ritual that apparently predates even Neanderthal man!  Early Agricultural Societies  Early agricultural societies from the Tamaulipas areas and also the state of Oaxaca are contemporary to the El Riego phase of the Tehuac n Valley. Corn seems to have been cultivated in these areas by 3,000 B.C. and by 2,000 B.C., according to Emmerich (p.18) "...it was being widely planted all over Middle America" and was soon followed by beans, the other important food plant. With agriculture, village life became possible, and with a sedentary village life came the art of pottery-making. The earliest ceramic finds in Middle America, so far, date from about 2300 B.C. and have been found at Purr¢n in Puebla and Puerto Marqu‚s near Acapulco on the Pacific Coast. It is believed that pottery-making was introduced from the south, from perhaps Ecuador and Colombia, which had pottery cultures dating back to about 3,000 B.C.  Figurines  Shortly after the introduction of pottery, both hollow and solid figurine fragments make their appearance, and by 2,000 B.C. "...pottery making was firmly established in Mesoamerica" (Weaver, p.40). The Valley of Mexico at this early period appears to have been studded with many large, deep lakes on the shores of which (and on islands) were numerous small villages by 2,000 B.C., all of which appear to have had a pottery culture. Weaver, (p.23) relates that from about the beginning of the El Riego phase (c.6500 B.C. as noted), Mesoamerica gradually pulled ahead of her neighbors until by 2000 B.C. a year-round sedentary village life was possible. From this time we can begin to see the emergence of the distinctive Mesoamerican culture... The eventual dependence on agriculture seems to have cleared the way for a chain of events that could, and in this case did, lead to the develop- ment of a high, complex civilization. The advent of pottery and figurine making is very important to the study of early religious beliefs, for now man could use examples from his everyday life to record, in clay, what was going on around him. Many of the dead were now buried with accompanying clay figurines, as well as food and utensils for use in the next life. A large number of these figurines are of women and it is believed that it was the women who made the early pottery figurines. Emmerich, p.20, notes that "...variations of these small...female figurines have been found at the earliest (village) levels all over Middle America." Although some wear short skirts or bulbous pantaloons, the majority are naked except for jewelry, and a large variety of different headdresses and hairdos. Their function is not known. Like their counterparts in early Europe and Asia, they are assumed to be the representations of some type of fertility cult or early goddesses, perhaps that of a Great Mother Goddess. They may have had something to do with agricultural and tribal ceremonies, functioning in somewhat the same way as the Kachina dolls of the sough-western U.S.A. Pueblo Indians, and identifiable to the members of the respective society by the costume or hairdo.  Tatooing or Body Painting  On some of the female figurines there is evidence to suggest the custom of body painting or tatooing. Seals (both flat and cylindrical) have been found that appear to have been used to paint both the body and textiles. Whether body painting and/or tatooing was considered a means of "beautification", or had some religious or ritualistic significance (or a combination of all or any of these), or for some other purpose is not known. Michael, in his book on Siberian Shamanism (1963) discusses the fear of some historical Siberian peoples concerning their belief that the soul of man can depart from the body while he is still alive (e.g., in sleep wanderings, abduction by dead souls, accidents or illness). On page 15, concerning the Lyapin Voguls, he states: Fear lest the soul should be lost even temporarily call forth corresponding precautionary measures... One of the strongest means for holding the soul was apparently tatooing. Figures of birds which were to hold the soul close to the body were tattooed. Is it possible that Preclassical Mesoamerican people also held this belief?  Multiplicity of Souls  Another commonly held belief among the various Siberian groups, as well as historical North and South Amerindians is of a multiplicity of souls in man (and sometimes also in other animals). The number varies from society to society,but a concept that holds is that man has an odd number of souls, women an even number, and that the seat of the soul is in the top of the head. Thee is much representation of "...two-headed persons, or heads with three eyes, two noses and two mouths" (Coe, p.75) and these all seem to be of women. Is it possible that here is an attempt to show this multiplicity of souls in these early figurines?  Figurines as Substitution Pieces for Human Sacrifices?  Some of the figurines appear to represent many aspects of everyday life in the villages, and include such varied activities as dogs playing, girls playing with dogs, acrobats, ballplayers, warriors, women carrying babies, and women nursing both dogs and babies. Also depicted are what appears to be magician-priests ar shamans with masks, and dwarfs (believed to be shamans' helpers). Emmerich (p.25) believes that these various figurines were meant as substitute pieces to replace human sacrifices and he also notes that there is some evidence of human sacrifice in certain burials at Tlatilco and elsewhere. If these are substitution pieces, then we have another strange parallel in beliefs between Mesoamerica and Asia, because in China wooden substitute pieces begin to show up in burials during the Warring States period, during the sixth century B.C. and are, by the Han Dynasty (beginning 202 B.C.) being made of clay.  Shaman Figurines  If some of the figurines mentioned above do represent shamans, then this is the earliest "tangible" evidence of shamanic belief in Preclassic Mesoamerica. This is not to assume, however, that shamanic activities suddenly emerged in this area at this time, simply that there has been no physical evidence of it until this period. As mentioned earlier, there appears to be very early evidence of shamanic activities in Europe and Asia prior to the first appearance of man in the Americas. Assuming that man did arrive in the Americas between 40,000-12,000 B.C., and that there were no ocean-going contacts after that, and since Mesoamerica is a great distance from Siberia, then if follows that the early inhabitants most likely brought this belief with them before the end of the last Ice Age.  Definition of a Shaman  Ralph Coe (1977), page 19, defines a shaman as: The spiritual leader of a tribe. In North American Indian society the shaman was the keeper of tribal lore and rituals, the evoker of visions, the arbitrator of social customs. In rare cases the shaman was also chief of the tribe. He had knowledge of rituals which were passed on to the next generation along with the ceremonial gear and clothing. Eliade notes that the meaning of "shaman" is often confused with the terms medicine-man, magician, and sorcerer. A shaman can be all of these, and he can also be the sacrificing priest. However, priests, sorcerers, magicians and medicine-men are not necessarily shamans. The role of the shaman is unique in a society, for it is he alone that is able to see and communicate with the souls of man and animal. In cases of drought, he appeals to the metaphysical forces controlling rainfall, if game animals cannot be found, it is up to him to "see" where they are, and possibly "charm" them so they can easily be killed.  Illness and Soul Loss  In cases of illness, the shaman determines what caused the illness, whether it was caused by some taboo violation on the part of the patient, or due to an "illness projectile" from a sorcerer, or perhaps due to "soul loss". In the case of soul loss, it is the job of the shaman to find the soul, capture it and return it to the patient. It is believed that if the soul is not returned within a short period of time, the person will die. This is especially evident in cases of unconsciousness. In determining illness or soul loss due to the actions of a sorcerer, the shaman often had to search out the sorcerer and mete out punishment, as well as return the soul to the patient, or magically remove the illness projectile.  Shamanic Universe  The shamanic universe is stratified, the principal divisions being an Upperworld in the sky and an Underworld deep in the ground. Each of these is multi-layered, usually with seven or twelve levels, and with its respective spirit rulers and other supernatural denizens. The passage through these levels is very dangerous and a soul could easily get captured or lost. In the rescuing of a soul, the shaman would often have to fight his way past demons and evil spirits. (Eliade, p.328, claims "...usually the sorcerers and spirits that abduct souls do not inhabit the celestial regions.") It is thus believed that many male figurines carrying poles and staffs are not warriors, but combative shamans in their role as psychopomp or rescuer of the abducted soul. Many of these figurines are also whistles, and whistles are often used in shamanic rituals to attract the spirits or announce their presence to the spirits.  Shaman as Psychopomp  Shamans carrying clubs, holding staffs, carrying other figures on their backs, or depicted as part bird and part man were usually found under the skulls of the dead. A commonly held belief in shamanic societies is that the soul of the deceased might get lost or abducted on its way to its future home, and thus another role of the shaman was to guide and protect the soul on its way. In doing so, the shaman often took the form of a bird. Brodzky et al, (p.16) relates: Since the head was commonly thought to be the repository of the essential life force, or soul, it is likely that these bird people represent shamans in their role as psychopomps, or soul guides, to the world of the dead.  World Tree  Shamanic legend relates to a central axis connecting all the various levels of the universe, and this is symbolized in shamanic art by the world tree, the sky ladder, by notched and unnotched staffs and, according to Brodzky (p.8), "...even the handle of the sacred rattle as symbolic vertical path to the gods at the top of the sky vault." In order to reach these various levels of the universe, the shaman would go into a trance. Very often this trance was preceded by dancing, chanting, and/or musical rituals. Sometimes, it was triggered also by the use of tobacco or psychotropic plants (although this latter was considered a degeneration of the former more powerful abilities of the "first" shaman). Some figurines show the shamans with a tree on their backs and some show shamans mounting their magical drums.  Selection of Shamans  Both Michael and eliade report that in historical societies it is believed that not everybody can become a shaman (nor does everyone wish to become one) because some people have greater mystical abilities than others. Shamanism often "runs" in families, from generation to generation; that is apparently due to the belief that a shaman will attract reincarnating souls with advanced mystical abilities into his family (thus not every member of the family will become a shaman). It is also believed that souls reincarnate into the same family time after time, thus the family member showing the necessary mystical abilities could actually be the reincarnated soul of a shamanic ancestor. When a person begins to show signs of having advanced mystical abilities, he is usually singled out and the specialized training begins soon after. However, other members of the society can also become shamans, usually by two methods: through actively seeking out a shaman to become his personal teacher (thereby indicating mystical ability because of his interest); or through a dramatic mystical experience (i.e., a "call") which often coincides with a miraculous recovery from a near-fatal condition. It is believed that if a person ignores this "call" he will remain in ill health, or have ongoing bad luck until he answers the call and begins his training.  Shamanic Training  Shamanic training often lasts a number of years, usually under the tutelage of a very advanced shaman. Eliade (p.317) says that training involves the learning of the mysteries, the mystical laws of music and musical instruments "...and how to use them to invoke the Great God and exorcise demons ... also the magical songs, medicinal plants and therapy." Training also involves one or a number of "initiations". One of the main initiations of a shaman is that of a ritual death and resurrection, sometimes by other shamans, but usually by an initiatory animal or demon and involves destruction of the initiate's body and internal organs. From the skeleton that remains, the initiatory animal rebuilds the internal organs and flesh and restores life (but at a more perfect level than before). The initiatory animal or demon then becomes the shaman's helping spirit, with whom he can converse, summon at will, obtain mystical help or advice, and supposedly assume its form (i.e., the transformation or metamorphosis previously mentioned). Many scholars now believe that works of art that were previously identified as animals devouring people might actually be examples of shamanic art depicting this ritualistic death (and resurrection) by initiatory animals.  X-Ray Art and Dualities  Because of this initiatory death and rebirth (and probably also because of the medical training received), a shaman is supposed to be able to visualize himself or any other creature as a skeleton and "...then name all the parts of the body, mention every single bone by name." (Brodzky p.2) As a result of this ability, shamanic art often shows both the inner and outer elements of man and animal (known as the X-ray style) at the same time. Art showing this style has been found from places as far away as Australia and Mexico. These do not appear to be recent ideas, however, because such representations were ...apparent in the primeval ritual art of the Upper Paleolithic, 15,000 to 25,000 years ago, in the cave sanctuaries of France and Spain and the mammoth-hunter encampments of eastern Europe. (ibid.) An art style that runs throughout all of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican art is that of "duality", of which there various themes: inner and outer, life and death, and light and shadow which Castedo calls "dualities in the universe" (p.29). (I, personally, call this "inner and outer vision".)  Skeletons in Art  Along the same theme of "life and death" are the works of art showing the skeleton on its own. These items have often been interpreted as proof of the Mesoamerican fixation with death. Alsberg, p.82, states that This idea of the polarity of life and death, the idea of resurrection, is the substance of many religions: man refused to believe that there could be an end, once his end has come. Alsberg calls skeletonized artistic representations the art style of the "Death Cult", which was characterized by skeletons in action and motion which were meant to portray "the negation of death" (ibid., p.84). He further claims that the significance of this death cult was "...precisely its refusal to accept the fact of death, for myth and primitive religion ... emphatically deny the very possibility of death." (ibid., p.88) Brodzky claims that the above interpretations are wrong, that such representations of skeletons in action are reflective of the shamanic belief in rebirth or revitalization from the bones. Whichever view one takes, there is agreement that such art has a religious significance.  Temple Structures  The ways in which the Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican worshiped his gods in Pre-Classic times is not known. Archaeological excavations have unearthed what appears to be an early cone structure that had later (by late Preclassic times) been enlarged to make a round temple platform at Cuicuilco, Valley of Mexico. Temple-pyramids, often also serving as burial grounds, have been discovered in the Guatamalan Highlands dating from the Middle to Late Pre-classic period (600 B.C. to A.D.300), and the custom seems to have been periodical enlargement of earlier, smaller structures. Weaver (p.81) believes clay temple-pyramids had been constructed at even earlier phases. One view is that the pyramid-temple structures evolved from earlier hilltop temples. Brodzky believes the pyramid steps leading to a temple at the top represents the shamanic concept of the celestial ascent. Whatever view one takes, it appears that the Mesoamerican people had, from an early time, built structures solely as worship centers to their gods. By the arrival of the Spanish, these pyramid-temple structures had become extremely large, to the point of towering above the surrounding forests, and had gone through numerous architectural style changes, a detailed discussion of which is beyond the scope of this essay. Stepped pyramid structures are, however, also found in Egypt and Mesopotamia from an earlier time period. It there is some connection with those of Mesoamerica, it has not been proven.  Early Deities  Two of the earliest deities worshiped were the Earth Goddess and the Fire God, although there appear to be many others. Many early figurines are believed to have been deities. According to identifications given to these figurines by modern-day scholars, there were deities for almost everything that happened in life, from childbirth to death. There were deities ruling over the various ways in which a person died, agricultural deities, deities of war, climate and so on. An elaborate priesthood had evolved to minister to these deities, and appear to have had specific costumes, headdresses, and other means of identification as to which deity they represented. There appears to be many surviving shamanic elements within the priesthoods, especially that of man-animal associations. In the art, some of the priests are shown wearing animal masks. Also shown is the burning of incense and lighting of torches and/or candles, which are still a part of some modern-day religions. Transformation or metamorphosis abilities apparently were not restricted to shamans or shaman-priests, but extended also the the deities who had animal as well as human identities. Statues and other art works, at an early period, begin to show this dual identity, and the animal masks (and sometimes skins) worn by the priests reflect this duality of the gods they served.  Human Sacrifice  Much has been written about the cruelty of the Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican societies and their preoccupation with human sacrifice. An illustration of a human sacrifice from Olmec times is shown in a cave painting, dated about 1500-900 B.C. In another sacrificial scene, this time from the Classic Period at El Tajin, Veracruz (A.D. 300-900), the "God of Death" appears to show both outer and skeletal qualities at the same time, an element common in shamanic art, as already noted. This deity could, then, also represent rebirth from the bones, not death. When the Spanish arrived in 1519, human sacrifice was still a vital part of Mesoamerican religion.  Ideal Ways of Death  To the ancient Mesoamericans, where one ended up in the "stratified universe" depended not upon how he lived, but how he died. According to Weaver, p.275, to die in battle, in childbirth (i.e. giving one's live "for a warrior") or as a sacrificial victim were the three noblest ways to go and ensured one of the highest place in the afterlife. This is still the basic concept in a few religions today, such as Islam, where to die in battle in a Holy War is the assured way to the highest realm in the afterlife.  Reasons for Sacrifices  The Mesoamerican religious and political systems were all tied in together, and the political leader was also the head sacrificing priest or shaman and and he was responsible for carrying out the necessary religious rituals to ensure the survival of the society (i.e., a theocratic system). The individual's life was subservient to that of the society and the society's survival was totally dependent upon the gods. To ensure survival, the gods had to be provided with whatever they needed; if this was the blood or the beating heart of a sacrificial victim, then that was what had to be given. There is evidence that some of the sacrificial victims were drugged before the ceremony, and it appears that the ones who were treated cruelly were prisoners of war. Dallas Chief Eagle, in Brad Steiger's book, Medicine Talk (p.130), says that there were three basic reasons for human sacrifices: 1. so that they could retain their way of life. 2. so that they would have successful crops and prosperity 3. so that enemy tribes would not war on them He also notes that we still retain such elements in our own society today: (ibid.) We put thousands of young men in uniform and have them slaughtered, desecrated, so that we can retain our way of life, so that we will maintain economic stability and prosperity, so that enemy nations will not war on us. I ask you, who is really the greater savage? Also, so die for one's country is still considered a "noble" way to die. Thus, before we place judgment upon other societies, we should closely examine our own to ascertain whether or not those same elements and beliefs are still around, even if hidden or in a slightly changed form.  Origins of Shamanic Beliefs  One should also not condemn shamanic religious beliefs as being primitive or superstitious. Some of these basic beliefs , as noted, have been around even longer than Homo sapiens sapiens. Brodzky, p.20, notes: We must assume that at least the fundamentals of the system were well established before the earliest peopling of North America in the late Pleistocene, (and)...these may well have been part and parcel of the intellectual baggage of the first Paleo-Americans as they drifted across the Bering land bridge that once linked Siberia to Alaska.  Survival of Shamanic Beliefs in Modern Society  In spite of the Christianizing efforts of the early missionaries in both North and Middle America, the shamanic practices of the native societies were not eliminated by merely submerged. Eliade claims that the sounds of shamanic drums could be heard in the Kootenays as late as the 1930's and that there are a number of shamans who belong to the Ojibway Midewiwin society today. Shamanism is also still a surviving force in the native populations of Middle and South America and coexists with other religious beliefs. Eliade (p.300) also claims that some of the basic beliefs of shamanism exist today in the "...secret societies and modern mystical sects." (For example communication with the Cosmic by means of a trance-like state, the mystical healing by the laying-on of hands in the evangelical sects, and the various levels of the cosmic plane.) In the Catholic religion today, and also in some of the Protestant sects, priests still "exorcise" demons or spirits from people and houses, often by the use of chants and the burning of incense. Also, just like the shaman, the priest is the intermediary between man and the gods. Brodzky, p. 21, sums this up nicely: The shamanic system ... can be said to be mankind's oldest religion, the ultimate foundation from which arose all the religions of the world. ð ð ð ð ð ð ð ð BIBLIOGRAPHY Alsberg, J.L., "Ancient Sculpture From Western Mexico" (Nicole Gallery, Berkeley, California), 1968. Brodzky A.T.; Danesewich, R.; Johnson, N.; "Stones, Bone and Skin, Ritual and Shamanic Art" (An Artscanada book, published by the Society for Art Publications, Toronto, Canada) 1977. Castedo, Leopoldo, "A History of Latin American Art and Architecture" (Frederick A. Praeger Publishers, New York, Washington) 1969. Coe, M. D., "Mexico" (Thames and Hudson, London) c1961. Coe, Ralph T., "Sacred Circles: Two Thousand Years of North American Indian Art" (Nelson Gallery of Art - Atkins Museum of Fine Arts, Kansas City, Missouri) 1977. Covarrubias, Miguel, "Indian Art of Mexico and Central America" (Knopf, New York) 1957. Curtis, Helena, "Biology" (Worth Publishers Inc., 444 Park Ave South, New York, New York) 1978. Eliade, Mircea, "Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy" (Routledge and Kegan Paul, London) 1964. Emmerlich, Andr‚, "Art Before Columbus" (New York, Simon & Schuster) 1963. Kelemen, P l, "Art of the Americas: Ancient and Hispanic" (Thomas Y. Crowell Company, New York, U.s.A.) 1969. Michael, Henry N., "Studies in Siberian Shamanism" (University of Toronto Press) 1963. Paddock, J., "Ancient Oaxaca, Discoveries in Mexican Archaeology & History" (Stanford University Press, Stanford, California) 1970. Smith, Bradley, "Mexico: A History in Art" (Gemini Smith Inc., La Jolla, California) 1968. Steiger, Brad, "Medicine Talk" (Doubleday & Co., Inc., Garden City, New York) 1975. Weaver, Muriel Porter, "The Aztecs, Maya and Their Predecessors" (Seminar Press, New York, San Francisco, London) 1972. - end -